The Political Geography of Antarctica

Antarctica is unique among the world’s continents. It has no permanent population, no sovereign government, and no universally recognized national borders. Instead, it is governed by a series of international agreements that regulate how countries may use the land and resources there.

The cornerstone of this system is the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 and in force since 1961. The treaty freezes all territorial claims, bans military activity, and promotes scientific cooperation. More than 50 countries are parties to the treaty, including all major powers.

Before the treaty, several nations declared overlapping claims—among them the United Kingdom, Chile, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, France, and Norway. The United States and Russia reserved the right to make claims but never did. Because of the treaty, these claims exist on paper only and cannot be enforced or expanded.

In practice, this means no country can treat its claimed sector as sovereign territory, for example, by enforcing laws, building military bases, or excluding others.

Today, the continent is divided into research zones rather than political units. Over 70 permanent research stations operate under national programs, but all follow the treaty’s principles. Antarctica thus represents an unusual form of international governance—territory shared for peaceful purposes, dedicated entirely to science.